Post History

What is the Bible? Navigating canonical variety

## What is the Bible? A question with many answers

For Christians, the Bible holds a central place as a source of divine revelation and guidance. However, the seemingly simple question, "What is the Bible?" reveals a complex landscape of differing perspectives across <a href="/help/christian-perspectives">Christian traditions, denominations, and movements</a>. While all Christians acknowledge the importance of Scripture, the specific content, order, and interpretation of the Bible vary significantly.

## Varying canons: Which books belong?

One of the most fundamental differences lies in the biblical canon&mdash;the collection of texts considered authoritative Scripture. Not all Christian groups agree on which books belong in the Bible. For example, Protestant Bibles typically contain 66 books, while Catholic Bibles include 73, incorporating the Deuterocanonical books (also known as the Apocrypha). Eastern Orthodox traditions may recognize even more texts as canonical. These differences reflect historical developments and theological considerations that have shaped the various branches of Christianity.

## Order, division, and numbering: Structuring the sacred text

Beyond the content of the canon, Christians also vary in how they order, divide, and number the books of the Bible. For instance, the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh), which forms the basis of the Old Testament for Christians, has a different structure than the Protestant Old Testament. Even within Protestantism, there can be variations in how the books are divided and numbered. These differences, while seemingly minor, can impact how specific passages are interpreted and understood.

## Manuscripts and translations: The textual foundation

The Bible has been transmitted through a multitude of ancient manuscripts, each with its own variations. Different Christian traditions may rely on different manuscript traditions, which can lead to variations in the text itself. Furthermore, the Bible has been translated into countless languages, and some translations are considered more authoritative than others within certain communities. These textual and translational differences contribute to the rich tapestry of biblical interpretation within Christianity.

## The Bible / Sacred Scripture

This section details the books considered canonical within different Christian (including Messianic Jewish) traditions, highlighting variations in content, order, and naming.

### The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh / Old Testament)

The Hebrew Bible, also known as the _Tanakh_ (an acronym derived from the names of its three sections: _Torah_, _Nevi'im_, and _Ketuvim_) or the Old Testament in Christian traditions, represents the foundational scriptures of Judaism. It is divided into three main sections: the Torah (Law), the Nevi'im (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Writings). While sharing many of the same texts, the organization and sometimes the content of the Hebrew Bible differ from the Old Testament found in various Christian Bibles. 

In the list below, the common English spelling used for the Old Testament book name is listed first, with transliterated Hebrew and Greek LXX names in parentheses, in that order (and sometimes also alternative names listed after that).

#### Pentateuch (Law / Torah)

* Genesis (*Bereshit*)
* Exodus (*Shemot*)
* Leviticus (*Vayiqra*, *Leuitikon*)
* Numbers (*BaMidbar*)
* Deuteronomy (*Devarim*, *Deuteronomion*)

#### Prophets (Nevi'im)

* #### Former Prophets (*Nevi'im Rishonim*)
    * Joshua (*Yehoshua*, *Iesous*)
    * Judges (*Shophetim*)
    * 1 Samuel (*I Shmuel*, 1 Reigns, 1 Kingdoms)
    * 2 Samuel (*II Shmuel*, 2 Reigns, 2 Kingdoms)
    * 1 Kings (*I Melakhim*, 3 Reigns, 3 Kingdoms)
    * 2 Kings (*II Melakhim*, 4 Reigns, 4 Kingdoms)
* #### Latter Prophets (*Nevi'im Aharonim*)
    * Isaiah (*Yeshayahu*, *Esaias*)
    * Jeremiah (*Yirmiyahu*, *Ieremias*)
    * Ezekiel (*Yehezqel*, *Iezekiel*)
    * #### Twelve Prophets (*Tere Asar*)
        * Hosea (*Hoshea*, *Osee*)
        * Joel (*Yoel*)
        * Amos
        * Obadiah (*Ovadyah*)
        * Jonah (*Yonah*)
        * Micah (*Mikhah*)
        * Nahum
        * Habakkuk (*Havakkuk*)
        * Zephaniah (*Tsephanyah*)
        * Haggai
        * Zechariah (*Zekharyah*)
        * Malachi (*Malakhi*)

#### Writings (Ketuvim)

* Psalms (*Tehillim*, *Psalmoi*, Psalter)
* Proverbs (*Mishle*)
* Job (*Iyyov*, *Iob*)
* #### Five Scrolls (*Megillot*)
    * Song of Songs (*Shir haShirim*)
    * Ruth (*Rut*, *Routh*)
    * Lamentations (*Ekhah*)
    * Ecclesiastes (*Qohelet*, *Ecclesiast*)
    * Esther (*Ester*)
* Daniel
* Ezra (*1 Esdras*)
* Nehemiah (*Nehemyah*, *2 Esdras*)
* 1 Chronicles (*I Divre haYamim*, 1 Supplements)
* 2 Chronicles (*II Divre haYamim*, 2 Supplements)

### Deuterocanonical Books / _Anagignoskomena_ (Apocrypha)

Some of these books are referred to as the Deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics, and the broader set are called _anagignoskomena_ ("readables") by some Eastern Orthodox traditions. These books comprise a collection of texts considered canonical by some Christian traditions but not by others. These books are typically included in the Septuagint (LXX), Vulgate, and Slavonic Bible but are excluded from the Hebrew Bible and most Protestant Bibles.

It's important to note that the term "Apocrypha" as used here, and in academic circles, is not intended to be pejorative. Rather, it simply denotes the apocryphal nature of these texts&mdash;meaning they are of disputed or uncertain authorship and/or canonical status&mdash;and does not imply any judgment on their spiritual value or historical significance.

In the list below, the common English spelling is listed first, with transliterated Greek LXX names in parentheses, followed by other common names.

#### Compositions

* Tobit
* Judith (*Ioudith*)
* Wisdom of Solomon (*Wisdom of Salomon*)
* Ecclesiasticus (*Sirach*, Wisdom of Jesus Son of Sirach, Book of Ben Sira)
* Baruch (*Barouch*)
* Letter of Jeremiah (*Letter of Ieremias*, Baruch chapter 6)

#### Histories

* 1 Maccabees (*1 Makkabees*, *1 Meqabyan* [Ethiopian])
* 2 Maccabees (*2 Makkabees*, *2 Meqabyan* [Ethiopian])

#### Additions

* Greek Esther (*Esther*)
* Additions to Greek Daniel
    * Prayer of Azariah
    * Song / Hymn of the Three Jews (Song of the Three Holy Children / Youth)
    * Susanna (*Sousanna*, History of Susan)
    * Bel and the Dragon (*Bel and the Dragon*, Vision 12, Part of the Prophecy of Habakkuk, Lesser Daniel)
* Prayer of Manasseh (Prayer of Manasses, Prayer of the House of Hananiah)

#### In Greek or Slavonic Bibles or Appendices

* 1 Esdras (*1 Esdras*, 2 Esdras in Slavonic, 3 Esdras in Vulgate Appendix, Pseudo-Ezra)
* 2 Esdras (*2 Esdras*, 3 Esdras in Slavonic, 4 Esdras in Vulgate Appendix, Ezra Apocalypse)
* 3 Maccabees (*3 Makkabees*, *3 Meqabyan* [Ethiopian], Ptolemaic Histories)
* 4 Maccabees (*4 Makkabees*, *4 Meqabyan* [Ethiopian])
* Psalm 151

### The New Testament

The New Testament, the second major division of the Christian Bible, focuses on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, as well as the early Christian church. Historically, the books of the New Testament have been categorized into two groups: the homolegoumena (universally recognized) and the antilegomena (disputed). While these distinctions existed in the early church, the following list presents the New Testament books in the conventional Protestant order.

#### Gospels

* Matthew
* Mark
* Luke
* John

#### Acts of the Apostles

* Acts of the Apostles

#### Letters (Epistles)

The traditional Pauline epistles are grouped together to maintain the conventional order of the letters, but the authorship of some of the epistles is disputed (e.g., Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians are sometimes referred to as Deutero-Pauline epistles; critical scholars do not view the Pastoral epistles as Pauline; and many also dispute that Hebrews was written by Paul).

* #### Pauline Epistles
    * Romans
    * 1 Corinthians
    * 2 Corinthians
    * Galatians
    * Ephesians
    * Philippians
    * Colossians
    * 1 Thessalonians
    * 2 Thessalonians
    * #### Pastoral Epistles
      * 1 Timothy
      * 2 Timothy
      * Titus
    * Philemon
    * Hebrews
* #### General Epistles (or Catholic Epistles)
    * James
    * 1 Peter
    * 2 Peter
    * 1 John
    * 2 John
    * 3 John
    * Jude

#### Revelation

* Revelation (Apocalypse of John)

### Pseudepigraphal Works

Pseudepigraphal works are texts attributed to biblical figures but often written later, sometimes with interpolations. Some Christian traditions consider certain pseudepigraphal works to be canonical or authoritative. It is important to note that the boundaries between canonical and pseudepigraphal texts are not always clear-cut, and some biblical writings themselves may be considered pseudepigraphal by some scholars.

#### Hebrew Bible Expansions

* Jubilees

#### Apocalyptic

* 1 Enoch
* 2 Enoch
* 3 Enoch

#### Ethiopian Orthodox Bible New Testament Additions

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church includes several texts in their New Testament canon that are not found in the typical Protestant or Catholic New Testament.

* Ethiopic Clement
* Ethiopic Synodos
* Ethiopic Book of Covenant
* 1-4 Meqabyan (1–4 Maccabees, as listed above)


## Conclusion: The biblical tapestry of traditions

As this overview demonstrates, the question of "What is the Bible?" is not a simple one. The diverse canons, textual traditions, and <a href="/help/interpretive-approaches">interpretive approaches</a> within Christianity reflect the rich and complex history of how these sacred texts have been received and understood. From the Hebrew Bible to the New Testament, and including the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, each tradition holds its own understanding of which books constitute the Word of God. This diversity highlights the importance of understanding the specific context and tradition from which any interpretation of the Bible arises. Whether exploring the ancient manuscripts, comparing different canons, or engaging with various <a href="/help/interpretive-approaches">hermeneutical approaches</a>, the ongoing study of the Bible continues to be a vital part of Christian faith and scholarship.